Zirconium
6.52
91.224
[Kr] 4d25s2
90Zr, 92Zr, 94Zr
4
5
d
40
2, 8, 18, 10, 2
640.074
Zr
6.52
1854°C, 3369°F, 2127 K
4406°C, 7963°F, 4679 K
Martin Heinrich Klaproth
1789
7440-67-7
22431
More Information
Uses and Properties
Image Explanation
Zirconium dioxide, a ceramic material derived from Zirconium, is commonly used in dentistry for its durability, aesthetics, and biocompatibility.
Appearance
A hard, silvery metal that is very resistant to corrosion.
Uses
Zirconium, a relatively unfamiliar element to many, is a material that has silently woven its way into the fabric of our modern world. With its remarkable properties and versatility, this chemical element, with atomic number 40, serves as a linchpin in various industries, from aerospace to healthcare. In this article, we will delve into the manifold and indispensable uses of zirconium, shedding light on its role in shaping our technological, industrial, and scientific landscape.
Before we explore the wide-ranging applications of zirconium, it's essential to understand the element itself. Zirconium is a silvery-white, corrosion-resistant metal, situated within the periodic table's transition metals. Named after the mineral zircon, zirconium is often confused with the gemstone but is an element of much greater significance. Its atomic number is 40, and it shares chemical properties with tantalum and hafnium, making it an essential element in various industries.
One of the most critical applications of zirconium lies in the field of nuclear energy. Zirconium alloys, specifically zirconium-702 and zirconium-704, are used to manufacture fuel rods and cladding for nuclear reactors. The high corrosion resistance and low neutron absorption of zirconium make it an ideal material for containing nuclear fuel and maintaining the integrity of nuclear reactor cores.
The zirconium fuel rods play a pivotal role in ensuring the safe and efficient operation of nuclear power plants, where they encapsulate the fuel pellets and act as a barrier against the release of radioactive materials.
In the aerospace sector, zirconium alloys find applications in manufacturing critical components for aircraft engines, where high temperatures and corrosive environments are common challenges. The remarkable heat resistance and strength of zirconium alloys make them suitable for use in components such as jet engine combustion chambers and nozzles.
These alloys are also used in the construction of aircraft landing gear, ensuring the reliability and durability of these essential components in aviation.
Zirconium plays a significant role in chemical processing due to its resistance to corrosion from acids, alkalis, and other aggressive chemical substances. Zirconium equipment, including pipes, vessels, and heat exchangers, is used in the production of chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and petrochemicals.
Zirconium's resilience to aggressive chemicals ensures the safe handling and processing of a wide range of substances, making it an integral element in maintaining the efficiency and safety of chemical plants.
Zirconium has found a vital place in the field of dentistry, where zirconium dioxide, often referred to as zirconia, is used for dental implants and crowns. Zirconia dental implants are favored for their biocompatibility and strength. These implants offer a durable and aesthetically pleasing solution for individuals seeking tooth replacement.
Zirconia crowns are known for their natural appearance and durability, making them a popular choice for restoring damaged or discolored teeth. The use of zirconia in dentistry ensures long-lasting and functional dental restorations.
Zirconium-based compounds, such as zirconium dioxide, are used in the production of ceramic capacitors and resistors, integral components in electronic devices. These ceramics offer high dielectric constant and excellent electrical properties, making them essential for the efficient operation of electronic circuits.
Zirconium dioxide is also used as an optical material. Its transparency in the ultraviolet and visible light regions, along with its exceptional refractive index, makes it a valuable material for optical coatings, lenses, and prisms. Zirconium oxide-based optical materials are used in applications such as laser optics and camera lenses.
Zirconium compounds, particularly zirconium silicate and zirconium oxide, are used in the glass industry as opacifiers and stabilizers. They enhance the brilliance and opacity of glass products, making them ideal for applications in the production of ceramics, glassware, and glazes.
Zirconium's role in the glass industry contributes to the aesthetic appeal and durability of glass products, ensuring they meet the demands of various markets, including architecture and interior design.
Zirconium is employed as an alloying element in metallurgy to improve the strength and heat resistance of various metals, particularly steel and aluminum. Zirconium alloys enhance the properties of these metals, making them suitable for applications in construction, automotive engineering, and aerospace.
As we continue to unearth the full potential of zirconium, its role in shaping various industries remains ever-evolving. With ongoing research and innovation, zirconium-based materials are likely to find new applications, further enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of various sectors.
Zirconium's unique combination of properties, including corrosion resistance, strength, and biocompatibility, ensures its enduring relevance in science, industry, and technology. As we harness its capabilities, we can anticipate even more groundbreaking applications that will continue to illuminate and empower our modern world.
Zirconium, a hidden hero among the elements, plays a crucial and multifaceted role in various industries, from nuclear power to aerospace, dentistry to electronics. Its unique properties and versatility have made it an indispensable element in shaping our modern world, ensuring the safety, efficiency, and progress of diverse sectors.
As we continue to explore and innovate with zirconium, its potential is bound to expand, opening doors to new and exciting applications. From dentistry to aerospace, from the chemical industry to electronics, zirconium remains an unassuming yet pivotal element in our technological, industrial, and scientific landscape. Its journey from obscurity to indispensability is a testament to the power of scientific exploration and innovation in shaping our modern world.
Zirconium: Unveiling the Diverse and Vital Applications of a Remarkable Element
Zirconium, a relatively unfamiliar element to many, is a material that has silently woven its way into the fabric of our modern world. With its remarkable properties and versatility, this chemical element, with atomic number 40, serves as a linchpin in various industries, from aerospace to healthcare. In this article, we will delve into the manifold and indispensable uses of zirconium, shedding light on its role in shaping our technological, industrial, and scientific landscape.
The Elemental Foundation
Before we explore the wide-ranging applications of zirconium, it's essential to understand the element itself. Zirconium is a silvery-white, corrosion-resistant metal, situated within the periodic table's transition metals. Named after the mineral zircon, zirconium is often confused with the gemstone but is an element of much greater significance. Its atomic number is 40, and it shares chemical properties with tantalum and hafnium, making it an essential element in various industries.
Zirconium in Nuclear Reactors
One of the most critical applications of zirconium lies in the field of nuclear energy. Zirconium alloys, specifically zirconium-702 and zirconium-704, are used to manufacture fuel rods and cladding for nuclear reactors. The high corrosion resistance and low neutron absorption of zirconium make it an ideal material for containing nuclear fuel and maintaining the integrity of nuclear reactor cores.
The zirconium fuel rods play a pivotal role in ensuring the safe and efficient operation of nuclear power plants, where they encapsulate the fuel pellets and act as a barrier against the release of radioactive materials.
Zirconium in Aerospace Industry
In the aerospace sector, zirconium alloys find applications in manufacturing critical components for aircraft engines, where high temperatures and corrosive environments are common challenges. The remarkable heat resistance and strength of zirconium alloys make them suitable for use in components such as jet engine combustion chambers and nozzles.
These alloys are also used in the construction of aircraft landing gear, ensuring the reliability and durability of these essential components in aviation.
Zirconium in Chemical Processing
Zirconium plays a significant role in chemical processing due to its resistance to corrosion from acids, alkalis, and other aggressive chemical substances. Zirconium equipment, including pipes, vessels, and heat exchangers, is used in the production of chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and petrochemicals.
Zirconium's resilience to aggressive chemicals ensures the safe handling and processing of a wide range of substances, making it an integral element in maintaining the efficiency and safety of chemical plants.
Zirconium in Dentistry
Zirconium has found a vital place in the field of dentistry, where zirconium dioxide, often referred to as zirconia, is used for dental implants and crowns. Zirconia dental implants are favored for their biocompatibility and strength. These implants offer a durable and aesthetically pleasing solution for individuals seeking tooth replacement.
Zirconia crowns are known for their natural appearance and durability, making them a popular choice for restoring damaged or discolored teeth. The use of zirconia in dentistry ensures long-lasting and functional dental restorations.
Zirconium in Electronics and Optics
Zirconium-based compounds, such as zirconium dioxide, are used in the production of ceramic capacitors and resistors, integral components in electronic devices. These ceramics offer high dielectric constant and excellent electrical properties, making them essential for the efficient operation of electronic circuits.
Zirconium dioxide is also used as an optical material. Its transparency in the ultraviolet and visible light regions, along with its exceptional refractive index, makes it a valuable material for optical coatings, lenses, and prisms. Zirconium oxide-based optical materials are used in applications such as laser optics and camera lenses.
Zirconium in the Glass Industry
Zirconium compounds, particularly zirconium silicate and zirconium oxide, are used in the glass industry as opacifiers and stabilizers. They enhance the brilliance and opacity of glass products, making them ideal for applications in the production of ceramics, glassware, and glazes.
Zirconium's role in the glass industry contributes to the aesthetic appeal and durability of glass products, ensuring they meet the demands of various markets, including architecture and interior design.
Zirconium in Metallurgy
Zirconium is employed as an alloying element in metallurgy to improve the strength and heat resistance of various metals, particularly steel and aluminum. Zirconium alloys enhance the properties of these metals, making them suitable for applications in construction, automotive engineering, and aerospace.
The Future of Zirconium
As we continue to unearth the full potential of zirconium, its role in shaping various industries remains ever-evolving. With ongoing research and innovation, zirconium-based materials are likely to find new applications, further enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of various sectors.
Zirconium's unique combination of properties, including corrosion resistance, strength, and biocompatibility, ensures its enduring relevance in science, industry, and technology. As we harness its capabilities, we can anticipate even more groundbreaking applications that will continue to illuminate and empower our modern world.
Conclusion
Zirconium, a hidden hero among the elements, plays a crucial and multifaceted role in various industries, from nuclear power to aerospace, dentistry to electronics. Its unique properties and versatility have made it an indispensable element in shaping our modern world, ensuring the safety, efficiency, and progress of diverse sectors.
As we continue to explore and innovate with zirconium, its potential is bound to expand, opening doors to new and exciting applications. From dentistry to aerospace, from the chemical industry to electronics, zirconium remains an unassuming yet pivotal element in our technological, industrial, and scientific landscape. Its journey from obscurity to indispensability is a testament to the power of scientific exploration and innovation in shaping our modern world.
History
In the world of elements, Zirconium (Zr), with its atomic number 40, may not be the most recognized name, yet it plays a remarkable role in our everyday lives. Zirconium is a metal that boasts a fascinating history, from its discovery as an obscure mineral to its pivotal position in modern industry. In this article, we will delve into the rich and often overlooked history of Zirconium, tracing its journey from the Earth's crust to the heart of various industrial applications.
A Geological Introduction
Zirconium, as a chemical element, is often overshadowed by its close neighbors on the periodic table. Derived from the mineral zircon, it is not found in a pure form in nature but is primarily extracted from zirconium silicate minerals. Zircon, the primary source of Zirconium, is a durable and resilient mineral, often used as a gemstone due to its brilliant luster and fire. This mineral has been revered for centuries, and it wasn't until the late 18th century that Zirconium was identified and isolated.
The Discovery of Zirconium
The story of Zirconium's discovery begins in the late 18th century when German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth isolated a new substance from the mineral zircon. This substance was initially named "zirconia" and, in the years that followed, was identified as the oxide of a new element, Zirconium.
The element's name, "Zirconium," was coined in the early 19th century, signifying its origin from the mineral zircon. This name is a testament to the importance of the mineral in the element's history. Zirconium's atomic number, 40, underlines its position in the periodic table, nestled among other transition metals.
Early Uses and Applications
Zirconium found early use in various applications, primarily in the form of zirconium compounds. Zirconium oxide, also known as zirconia, became an important material in the production of ceramics. Zirconia's resistance to high temperatures, along with its strength and durability, made it an ideal choice for ceramic crucibles, refractory materials, and insulating coatings.
Zirconium's corrosion resistance also made it valuable in the chemical industry, where it was used for the construction of vessels and pipes to handle aggressive chemicals. This early application of Zirconium paved the way for its future in chemical processing and industry.
The Nuclear Age and Zirconium
Zirconium's history took a significant turn during the mid-20th century with the advent of nuclear technology. Zirconium was recognized for its unique properties that made it an ideal material for nuclear reactors. Zirconium's low absorption of thermal neutrons and its exceptional corrosion resistance when exposed to hot water led to its adoption in nuclear applications.
In the form of zirconium alloys, specifically zirconium-702 and zirconium-704, Zirconium became a key component in the construction of fuel rods and cladding for nuclear reactors. These alloys provided the crucial barrier that protected the nuclear fuel and maintained the integrity of reactor cores. The safety and efficiency of nuclear power plants significantly rely on the corrosion-resistant and heat-tolerant properties of Zirconium.
The Aerospace Industry and Beyond
Zirconium's contribution extends beyond nuclear power. In the aerospace industry, Zirconium alloys have found their place in the manufacturing of aircraft engine components. These alloys are favored for their high-temperature resistance, making them suitable for use in jet engine combustion chambers, nozzles, and landing gear components.
In the chemical industry, Zirconium's resistance to corrosion from acids, alkalis, and other aggressive chemical substances continues to be of paramount importance. Zirconium equipment, including pipes, vessels, and heat exchangers, play a critical role in chemical processing, ensuring the safe handling of a wide range of substances.
Dentistry and Medicine
Zirconium has also made inroads into the field of dentistry and medicine. Zirconium dioxide, commonly referred to as zirconia, is used in dental implants and crowns. Zirconia dental implants are recognized for their biocompatibility and strength, making them a durable and aesthetic solution for individuals seeking tooth replacement.
Zirconia crowns offer natural aesthetics and longevity, making them a popular choice for restoring damaged or discolored teeth. The use of Zirconium in dentistry ensures reliable and functional dental restorations.
Unearthing the Future
As we delve further into the 21st century, Zirconium's history is far from complete. Ongoing research and innovation continue to expand its potential and application across various industries. Zirconium-based materials are likely to find new uses, further enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of sectors such as aerospace, healthcare, and chemical processing.
Zirconium's unique combination of properties, including corrosion resistance, strength, and biocompatibility, ensures its continued relevance in science, industry, and technology. As we harness its capabilities, we can anticipate further groundbreaking applications that will continue to shape and empower our modern world.
The history of Zirconium is a journey of discovery, innovation, and adaptation. From its isolation from the mineral zircon to its role in shaping technology, aerospace, dentistry, and the chemical industry, Zirconium has played a pivotal role in our modern world.
As we continue to explore and innovate with Zirconium, its potential is bound to expand, opening doors to new and exciting applications. From aerospace to healthcare, from chemical processing to nuclear power, Zirconium remains an unassuming yet indispensable element in our technological, industrial, and scientific landscape. Its journey from obscurity to indispensability is a testament to the power of scientific exploration and innovation in shaping our modern world.
Atomic Data
Atomic Radiues, Non-bonded (A): 2.23
Electron Affinity (kJ mol-1): 41.103
Covalent Radiues (A): 1.64
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 1.33
| Ionisation Energies (kJ mol-1) | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 4th | 5th | 6th | 7th | 8th |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 640.074 | 1264 | 2218.2 | 3313.31 | 7752.404 | - | - | - |
Oxidation States and Isotopes
Common oxidation states 1
| Isotope | Atomic Mass | Natural Abundance | Half Life | Mode of Decay |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 90Zr | 89.905 | 51.45 | - | - |
| 91Zr | 90.906 | 11.22 | - | - |
| 92Zr | 91.905 | 17.15 | - | - |
| 94Zr | 93.906 | 17.38 | > 1017 y | β-β- |
| 96Zr | 95.908 | 2.8 | 2.3 x 1019 y | β-β- |
| > 1.7 x18 y | β- |
Supply Risk
Relative Supply Risk: 5.7`
Crustal Abundance (ppm): 132
Recycle Rate (%): <10
Production Conc.(%) : 39
Top 3 Producers:
1) Australia
2) South Africa
3) China
1) Australia
2) South Africa
3) China
Top 3 Reserve Holders:
1) Australia
2) South Africa
3) Ukraine
1) Australia
2) South Africa
3) Ukraine
Substitutability: Unknown
Political Stability of Top Producer: 74.5
Political Stability of Top Reserve Holder: 74.5
Pressure and Temperature Data
Specific Heat Capacity: 278
Shear Modulus: Unknown
Young Modulus: Unknown
Bulk Modulus: Unknown
| Pressure 400k | Pressure 600k | Pressure 800k | Pressure 1000k | Pressure 1200k | Pressure 1400k | Pressure 1600k | Pressure 1800k | Pressure 2000k | Pressure 2200k | Pressure 2400k |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| - | - | - | - | - | 1.05 x 10-10 | 6.17 x 10-8 | 8.68 x 10-6 | 0.00045 | 0.011 | Unknown |
Podcast
Transcript:
Zirconium is a strong transition metal that resembles titanium. This element is a versatile element. There is some controversy about the safety of it. In fact, a study involving overweight participants suggested a link between Zirconium implants and health problems. There are three main types of Zirconium: fused Zirconium dioxide, zircon, and zirconia. Each type has its own specific properties. Zirconium is a metal that occurs in the Earth's crust. It has an atomic number of 40 and is found in various minerals. There are 30 different mineral species that contain Zirconium. Most zircon is reddish brown in colour and consists of small crystals. Some are translucent. Zircon is a pyrophoric metal that has been known to spontaneously ignite in the air. There are also five natural isotopes of Zirconium. They are Zirconium 79, 86, 89, 92 and 110. Zirconium 93 has the longest half-life, ranging from 1.53 to 106 years and the heaviest isotope of Zirconium is Z-110. While it is unlikely that the isotope is hazardous to the environment and still being filtered from reactors and cladding.
The element was first discovered in 1789 by German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. He found it in a mineral called Zirconium silicate, which is found in Brazil, Russia, India, Australia, Sri Lanka and the United States. Before this discovery, there were a number of compounds that were thought to be alumina. But in 1789, when Martin started experimenting with the mineral, he was unable to isolate pure Zirconium. During the nineteenth century, the forms of Zirconium were very brittle and impure. However, by 1808, Sir Humphry Davy had attempted to isolate the element from its oxide by electrolysis.
In 1925, Dutch chemists Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer discovered a method for producing high purity Zirconium. This process, known as the crystal bar process, was the first industrial method for preparing the element.
Although the element had been known since ancient times, it was not isolated until the middle of the nineteenth century. The first successful isolation of Zirconium was accomplished in 1824 by Swedish chemist Jons Jakob Berzelius. He achieved the desired results by heating a mixture of potassium hexafluorozirconate and potassium.
While Berzelius had already produced a brittle metal powder from the process, his work was still not sufficient to get pure Zirconium. In the meantime, he tried various methods to isolate the element.
After his successful experiment with the mineral named Klaproth, he was able to find an oxide of a new element. This was later named Yttria Stabilized Zirconia.
The main commercial source of Zirconium is baddeleyite, a mineral from Australia. The mineral contains a relatively high proportion of it, it makes it a valuable commodity. Most Zirconium metal is produced by the reduction of the Zirconium chloride with magnesium metal in the Kroll process. The abundance of this element in the Earth's crust is about 150 to 230 parts per million. This element is an igneous mineral that occurs in rock deposits. Zirconium is Most occurrences are associated with coarse grained sediments. During metamorphism, overgrowths on zircon crystals can form inside a protolith. During this process, Zirconium is released. It is relatively abundant in S-type stars and is also found in meteorites.
Zirconium is a relatively inert metallic substance. It reacts more slowly with nitrogen than with oxygen since it has a higher affinity for oxygen than for nitrogen. It results in the formation of a protective oxide layer in air at room temperature. Zirconium is a strong metal that has a high corrosion resistance and it is also known for its hardness. This element is also very reactive at higher temperatures. It is one of the best materials for nuclear power plants because of its low thermal neutron absorption and resistance to high temperatures. Its properties include high resistance to heat. The specific heat of Zirconium is 0.27 Joule per gram kelvin. This means that at a temperature of standard pressure it has a boiling point of 3577ºC and a melting point of 1855ºC. The crystal structure of Zirconium is known as a monoclinic prismatic system.
It has many uses in the world today. This element is used to create a wide range of products, such as ceramics, paints, and electronics. It is used in many applications, especially in the nuclear industry. Due to its high resistance to heat, Zirconium is often used in cladding fuel rods and other components in nuclear reactors. This element is widely used in the industrial, medical, and military sectors. It is used as an opacifier for ceramic materials. Fused Zirconium dioxide is mostly used in refractory materials. This metal is used in optics, glass, ceramics, dental crowns, surgical instruments, photographic flashbulbs and porcelain.
Zirconium is a strong transition metal that resembles titanium. This element is a versatile element. There is some controversy about the safety of it. In fact, a study involving overweight participants suggested a link between Zirconium implants and health problems. There are three main types of Zirconium: fused Zirconium dioxide, zircon, and zirconia. Each type has its own specific properties. Zirconium is a metal that occurs in the Earth's crust. It has an atomic number of 40 and is found in various minerals. There are 30 different mineral species that contain Zirconium. Most zircon is reddish brown in colour and consists of small crystals. Some are translucent. Zircon is a pyrophoric metal that has been known to spontaneously ignite in the air. There are also five natural isotopes of Zirconium. They are Zirconium 79, 86, 89, 92 and 110. Zirconium 93 has the longest half-life, ranging from 1.53 to 106 years and the heaviest isotope of Zirconium is Z-110. While it is unlikely that the isotope is hazardous to the environment and still being filtered from reactors and cladding.
The element was first discovered in 1789 by German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. He found it in a mineral called Zirconium silicate, which is found in Brazil, Russia, India, Australia, Sri Lanka and the United States. Before this discovery, there were a number of compounds that were thought to be alumina. But in 1789, when Martin started experimenting with the mineral, he was unable to isolate pure Zirconium. During the nineteenth century, the forms of Zirconium were very brittle and impure. However, by 1808, Sir Humphry Davy had attempted to isolate the element from its oxide by electrolysis.
In 1925, Dutch chemists Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer discovered a method for producing high purity Zirconium. This process, known as the crystal bar process, was the first industrial method for preparing the element.
Although the element had been known since ancient times, it was not isolated until the middle of the nineteenth century. The first successful isolation of Zirconium was accomplished in 1824 by Swedish chemist Jons Jakob Berzelius. He achieved the desired results by heating a mixture of potassium hexafluorozirconate and potassium.
While Berzelius had already produced a brittle metal powder from the process, his work was still not sufficient to get pure Zirconium. In the meantime, he tried various methods to isolate the element.
After his successful experiment with the mineral named Klaproth, he was able to find an oxide of a new element. This was later named Yttria Stabilized Zirconia.
The main commercial source of Zirconium is baddeleyite, a mineral from Australia. The mineral contains a relatively high proportion of it, it makes it a valuable commodity. Most Zirconium metal is produced by the reduction of the Zirconium chloride with magnesium metal in the Kroll process. The abundance of this element in the Earth's crust is about 150 to 230 parts per million. This element is an igneous mineral that occurs in rock deposits. Zirconium is Most occurrences are associated with coarse grained sediments. During metamorphism, overgrowths on zircon crystals can form inside a protolith. During this process, Zirconium is released. It is relatively abundant in S-type stars and is also found in meteorites.
Zirconium is a relatively inert metallic substance. It reacts more slowly with nitrogen than with oxygen since it has a higher affinity for oxygen than for nitrogen. It results in the formation of a protective oxide layer in air at room temperature. Zirconium is a strong metal that has a high corrosion resistance and it is also known for its hardness. This element is also very reactive at higher temperatures. It is one of the best materials for nuclear power plants because of its low thermal neutron absorption and resistance to high temperatures. Its properties include high resistance to heat. The specific heat of Zirconium is 0.27 Joule per gram kelvin. This means that at a temperature of standard pressure it has a boiling point of 3577ºC and a melting point of 1855ºC. The crystal structure of Zirconium is known as a monoclinic prismatic system.
It has many uses in the world today. This element is used to create a wide range of products, such as ceramics, paints, and electronics. It is used in many applications, especially in the nuclear industry. Due to its high resistance to heat, Zirconium is often used in cladding fuel rods and other components in nuclear reactors. This element is widely used in the industrial, medical, and military sectors. It is used as an opacifier for ceramic materials. Fused Zirconium dioxide is mostly used in refractory materials. This metal is used in optics, glass, ceramics, dental crowns, surgical instruments, photographic flashbulbs and porcelain.
References
- W. M. Haynes, ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 95th Edition, Internet Version 2015, accessed December 2014.
- Tables of Physical & Chemical Constants, Kaye & Laby Online, 16th edition, 1995. Version 1.0 (2005), accessed December 2014.
- J. S. Coursey, D. J. Schwab, J. J. Tsai, and R. A. Dragoset, Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions (version 4.1), 2015, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, accessed November 2016.
- T. L. Cottrell, The Strengths of Chemical Bonds, Butterworth, London, 1954.
- John Emsley, Nature’s Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements, Oxford University Press, New York, 2nd Edition, 2011.
- Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility - Office of Science Education, It’s Elemental - The Periodic Table of Elements, accessed December 2014.
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